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An Essay on the Principle of Population - Wikipedia
The book An Essay on the Principle of Population was first published anonymously in[1] but the author was soon identified as Thomas Robert Malthus. The book warned of future difficulties, on an interpretation of the population increasing in geometric progression so as to double every 25 years [2] while food production increased in an arithmetic progressionwhich would leave a difference resulting in the want of food and famine, unless birth rates decreased.
While it was not the first book on population, Malthus's book fuelled debate about the size of the population in Britain and contributed to the passing of the Census Act This Act enabled the holding of a national census in England, essay on population explosion wiki, Wales and Scotland, starting in and continuing every ten years to the present. The book's 6th edition was independently cited as a key influence by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in developing the theory of natural selection.
A key portion of the book was dedicated to what is now known as the Malthusian Law of Population. The theory claims that growing population rates contribute to a rising supply of labour and inevitably lowers wages. In essence, Malthus feared essay on population explosion wiki continued population growth lends itself to poverty. InMalthus published, under the same title, a heavily revised second edition of his work.
In32 years after the first edition, Malthus published a condensed version entitled A Summary View on the Principle of Populationwhich included responses to criticisms of the larger work. Between and Malthus published six editions of his famous treatise, updating each edition to incorporate new material, to address criticism, and to convey changes in his own perspectives on the subject.
He wrote the original text in reaction to the optimism of his father and his father's associates notably Rousseau regarding the future improvement of society. Malthus also constructed his case as a specific response to writings of William Godwin — and of the Marquis de Condorcet — Malthus regarded ideals of future improvement in the lot of humanity with scepticism, considering that throughout history a segment of every human population seemed relegated to poverty.
He explained this phenomenon by arguing that population growth generally expanded in times and in regions of plenty until a relatively large size of population, relative to a more modest supply of primary resources, caused distress:. This constant effort as constantly tends to subject the lower classes of the society to distress and to prevent any great permanent amelioration of their condition".
The way in which these effects are produced seems to be this. We will suppose the essay on population explosion wiki of subsistence in any country just equal to the easy support of its inhabitants. The constant effort towards population increases the number of people before the means of subsistence are increased. The food therefore which before supported seven millions must now be divided among seven millions and a half or eight millions. The poor consequently must essay on population explosion wiki much essay on population explosion wiki, and many of them be reduced to severe distress.
The number of labourers also being above the proportion of the work in the market, the price of labour must tend toward a decrease, while the price of provisions would at the same time tend to rise. The labourer therefore must work harder to earn the same as he did before. During this season of distress, the discouragements to marriage, and the difficulty of rearing a family are so great that population is at a stand, essay on population explosion wiki.
In the mean time the cheapness of labour, the plenty of labourers, and the necessity of an increased industry amongst them, encourage cultivators to employ more labour upon their land, to turn up fresh soil, and to manure and improve more completely what is already in tillage, till ultimately the means of subsistence become in the same proportion to the population as at the period from which we set out, essay on population explosion wiki.
The situation of the labourer being then again tolerably comfortable, the restraints to population are in some degree loosened, and the same retrograde and progressive movements with respect to happiness are repeated. Malthus also saw that societies through history had experienced at one time or another epidemics, famines, or wars: events that masked the fundamental problem of populations overstretching their resource limitations:.
The power of population is so superior to the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man, essay on population explosion wiki, that premature death must in some shape or other visit the human race. The vices of mankind are active and able ministers of depopulation. They are the precursors in the great army of destruction, and often finish the dreadful work themselves. But should they fail in this war of extermination, sickly seasons, epidemics, pestilence, and plague advance in terrific array, and sweep off their thousands and tens of thousands.
Should success be still incomplete, gigantic inevitable famine stalks in the rear, and with one mighty blow levels the population with the food of the world.
The rapid increase in the global population of the past century exemplifies Malthus's predicted population patterns; it also appears to describe socio-demographic dynamics of complex pre-industrial societies. These findings are the basis for neo-Malthusian modern mathematical models of long-term historical dynamics. Malthus argued that two types of checks hold population within resource limits: The first, or preventive check to lower birth rates and The second, or positive check to permit higher mortality rates.
This second check "represses an increase which is already begun" but by being "confined chiefly, though not perhaps solely, to the lowest orders of society".
The preventive checks could involve birth control, postponement of marriage, and celibacy while the positive checks could involve hunger, disease and war. Malthus highlighted the difference between essay on population explosion wiki instituted welfare and privately supported benevolence essay on population explosion wiki proposed a gradual abolition of poor laws which he thought would be accompanied by a mitigation of the circumstances within which people would need relief and by privately supported benevolence supporting those in distress.
It offended Malthus that critics claimed he lacked a caring attitude toward the situation of the poor. In the edition his concern for the poor shows in passages such as the following:.
Nothing is so common as to essay on population explosion wiki of encouragements that ought to be given to population. If the tendency of mankind to increase be so great as I have represented essay on population explosion wiki to be, it may appear strange that this increase does not come when it is thus repeatedly called for. The true essay on population explosion wiki is, that the demand for a greater population is made without preparing the funds necessary to support it.
Increase the demand for agricultural labour by promoting cultivation, and with it consequently increase the produce of the country, and ameliorate the condition of the labourer, and no apprehensions whatever need be entertained of the proportional increase of population. An attempt to effect this purpose in any other way is vicious, cruel, and tyrannical, and in any state of tolerable freedom cannot therefore succeed. I have written a chapter expressly on the practical direction of our charity; and in detached passages elsewhere have paid a just tribute to the exalted virtue of benevolence.
To those who have read these parts of my work, and have attended to the general tone and spirit of the whole, I willingly appeal, if they are but tolerably candid, against these charges which intimate that I would root out the virtues of charity and benevolence without regard to the exaltation which they bestow on the moral dignity of our nature Some, such as William Farr [11] and Karl Marx[12] argued that Malthus did not fully recognize the human capacity to increase food supply.
On this subject, however, Malthus had written: "The main peculiarity which distinguishes man from other animals, essay on population explosion wiki, in the means of his support, essay on population explosion wiki, is the power which he possesses of very greatly increasing these means.
He also commented on the notion that Francis Galton later called eugenics :. by any means seem impossible that by an attention to breed, a certain degree of improvement, similar to that among animals, might take place among men. Whether intellect could be communicated may be a matter of doubt; but size, strength, beauty, complexion, and perhaps longevity are in a degree transmissible As the human race, however, could not be improved in this way without essay on population explosion wiki all the bad specimens to celibacy, it is not probable that an attention to breed should ever become general".
As a Christian and a clergyman, essay on population explosion wiki, Malthus addressed the question of how an omnipotent and caring God could permit suffering. In the First Edition of his Essay Malthus reasoned that the constant threat of poverty and starvation served to teach the virtues of hard work and virtuous behaviour. Nevertheless, although the threat of poverty could be understood to be a prod to motivate human industry, it was not God's will that man should suffer.
Malthus wrote that mankind itself was solely to blame for human suffering:. I believe that it is the intention of the Creator that the earth should be replenished; but certainly with a healthy, virtuous and happy population, not an unhealthy, vicious and miserable one. And if, in endeavouring to obey the command to increase and multiply, [17] we people it only with beings of this latter description and suffer accordingly, we have no right to impeach the justice of the command, but our irrational mode of executing it.
Malthus referred to the last two chapters of the Essay as his "theory of mind". The first great awakeners of the mind seem to be the wants of the body [ Malthus's theory of mind, therefore, posited that "matter is formed into mind by the impressions and stimulations of nature upon the body and the ensuing perpetual struggle to avoid pain and pleasure".
Malthus wrote of the relationship between population, real wages, and inflation. When the population of laborers grows faster than the production of food, real wages fall because the growing population causes the cost of living i.
Difficulties of raising a family eventually reduce the rate of population growth, until the falling population again leads to higher real wages:. A circumstance which has, essay on population explosion wiki, perhaps, more than any other, contributed to conceal this oscillation from common view, essay on population explosion wiki, is the difference between the nominal and real price of labour.
It very rarely happens that the nominal price of labour universally falls; but we well know that it frequently remains the same, while essay on population explosion wiki nominal price of provisions has been gradually rising. This, indeed, will generally be the case, if the increase of manufactures and commerce be sufficient to employ the new labourers that are thrown into the market, and to prevent the increased supply from lowering the money-price.
But an increased number of labourers receiving the same money-wages will necessarily, by their competition, increase the money-price of corn. This is, in fact, a real fall in the price of labour; and, during this period, the condition of the lower classes of the community must be gradually growing worse. But the farmers and capitalists are growing rich from the real cheapness of labour.
Their increasing capitals enable them to employ a greater number of men; and, as the population had probably suffered some check from the greater difficulty of supporting a family, the demand for labour, after a certain period, would be great in proportion to the supply, and its price would of course essay on population explosion wiki, if left to find its natural level; and thus the wages of labour, and consequently the condition of the lower classes of society, might have progressive and retrograde movements, though the price of labour might never nominally fall, essay on population explosion wiki.
In later editions of his essay, Malthus clarified his view that if society relied on human misery to limit population growth, then sources of misery e. On the other hand, "preventive checks" to population that limited birthrates, such as later marriages, could ensure a higher standard of living for all, while also increasing economic stability. The full title of the first edition of Malthus' essay was "An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it affects the Future Improvement of Society with remarks on the Speculations of Mr.
GodwinM. Condorcetand Other Writers. William Godwin had published his utopian work Enquiry concerning Political Justice inwith later editions in and Also, Of Avarice and Profusion Malthus' remarks on Godwin's work spans chapters 10 through 15 inclusive out of nineteen. Godwin responded with Of Population The Marquis de Condorcet had published his utopian vision of social progress and the perfectibility of man Esquisse d'un Tableau Historique des Progres de l'Espirit Humain Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind in Malthus' remarks on Condorcet's work spans chapters 8 and 9.
This natural inequality of the two powers, of population, and of production of the earth, and that great law of our nature which must constantly keep their effects equal, form the great difficulty that appears to me insurmountable in the way to the perfectibility of society. The "other writers" included Robert Wallace, Adam SmithRichard Priceand David Hume.
The only authors from whose writings I had deduced the principle, which formed the main argument of the Essay, were Hume, Wallace, Adam Smith, and Dr, essay on population explosion wiki. Chapters 1 and 2 outline Malthus' Principle of Population, and the unequal nature of food supply to population growth. The exponential nature of population growth is today known as the Malthusian growth model. This aspect of Malthus' Principle of Population, together with his assertion that food supply was subject to a linear growth model, would remain unchanged in future editions of his essay.
Note that Malthus actually used the terms geometric and arithmeticrespectively. Chapter 3 examines the overrun of the Roman empire by barbarians, essay on population explosion wiki, due to population pressure. War as a check on population is examined. Chapter 4 examines the current state of populousness of civilized nations particularly Europe. Malthus criticises David Hume for a "probable error" in his "criteria that he proposes as assisting in an estimate of population. Chapter 5 examines The Poor Laws of Pitt the Younger.
Chapter 6 examines the rapid growth of new colonies such as the former Thirteen Colonies of the United States of America. Chapter 7 examines checks on population such as pestilence and famine.
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